Monday, 4 February 2013

Live action: Twitter grabs Super Bowl spotlight

This image provided by Oreo's shows the image the company's marketers tweeted some 10 minutes after the power went out during the Super Bowl XLVII football game on Sunday, Feb. 3, 2013. As of Monday afternoon, the image had been re-tweeted more than 15,000 times. (AP Photo/Oreo's )

This image provided by Oreo's shows the image the company's marketers tweeted some 10 minutes after the power went out during the Super Bowl XLVII football game on Sunday, Feb. 3, 2013. As of Monday afternoon, the image had been re-tweeted more than 15,000 times. (AP Photo/Oreo's )

NEW YORK (AP) ? Beyonce's splashy show, a freak power outage, and ?oh, yeah? a captivating game of football combined to generate a record 24.1 million posts on Twitter during Sunday night's Super Bowl.

That's up from 13.7 million last year ? and that doesn't even include chatter surrounding the ads.

Twitter said in a late Sunday blog post that about half of the more than 50 national TV spots that aired during the game included a "hashtag," a word or phrase preceded by a number sign that's used to organize subjects on the short messaging site. During last year's game, only one in five ads included one. Brands ranging from Oreo to Tide and Budweiser, meanwhile, captured online buzz by linking the blackout to their brands in humorous tweets.

Super Bowl XLVII, like the London Summer Olympics and the U.S. presidential election, was yet another moment in which Twitter became the platform for millions of people to share quick reactions and participate in a massive, public conversation. Though it's not as popular as Facebook Inc. or its buttoned-up cousin LinkedIn Corp., Twitter's surging popularity during big events is a testament to its reach and utility. The question is whether these moments can translate into revenue for the 7-year-old company.

The company makes money by charging advertisers to promote individual tweets, accounts or trends designed to spark a conversation. Research firm eMarketer estimates that Twitter will book advertising revenue of $545.2 million this year, up 89 percent from 2012. Next year, worldwide ad revenue is expected to hit $807.5 million, a 48 percent increase from 2013.

Tweetable events such as the 34-minute Super Bowl power outage are ripe with marketing potential, provided that brands act quickly.

"It's really clear right now that Twitter has a lock on real-time conversation on the Internet," says eMarketer analyst Debra Aho Williamson.

To capitalize on this, Twitter has to show advertisers that it pays to promote their tweets ? even though fans are likely to spread the catchiest slogans on their own, free of charge.

That's what happened with a certain cream-filled cookie on Sunday.

It took Oreo's marketers roughly 10 minutes after the power went out to tweet a picture of an Oreo cookie in the half-dark with the words: "You can still dunk in the dark." As of Monday afternoon, the image had been shared on Twitter more than 15,000 times. Tide followed suit with the slogan "we can't get your blackout. But we can get your stains out" with more limited success. The message was re-tweeted about 1,300 times. Calvin Klein, meanwhile, tweeted a video of a shirtless, chiseled male model doing crunches "since the lights are still out..."

Such "real-time marketing" is still in its infancy, but Williamson expects this to change, as more companies develop the ability to respond to events immediately."

"To do what Oreo did actually takes a lot of pre-planning," she says.

Laurie Guzzinati, spokeswoman for Oreo owner Mondelez, says the power outage was a natural moment to engage consumers. The cookie's TV ad had a planned social media component asking people to follow Oreo on Twitter and post photos on Instagram. The company had set up a "social media command center" that included people from Oreo's brand team, the ad agency 360i and other partners whose job was to follow the Super Bowl and interact with fans on Facebook, Twitter and elsewhere.

Mondelez likely spent the going rate of as much as $4 million on its Super Bowl television spot. But Guzzinati says the company didn't pay Twitter anything for the "dunk in the dark" picture. Still, Twitter says advertisers moved quickly following the outage.

Matt McGee, editor-in-chief of the blog Marketing Land, counted 26 Twitter mentions in the 52 national spots that aired during the game. Facebook, meanwhile, got only four shout-outs, while Google Plus walked away with zero (though Google Inc.'s YouTube scored one mention from Hyundai).

"When it comes to second-screen advertising, it's Twitter's world now and there's no close second place," McGee wrote in a blog post late Sunday night. "Last year, brands split their focus on Twitter and Facebook with eight mentions each. This year, brands recognize that Twitter is where they need to try to attract the online conversation around one of the world's biggest events."

David Berkowitz, vice president of emerging media at 360i, which worked on the Oreo campaign, says Twitter has done a good job tying itself into major television events.

"If you look at (Twitter's) trending topics any day especially during prime time or major events, they're heavily fueled by television," he says. "So TV is responsible for Twitter's growth in general."

He thinks Twitter has done a better job than other social media sites like Tumblr and Pinterest in proving it's the place to be when it comes to talking about big events online.

"A large part of it right now is just showing this is where the conversation is happening and building their brand around that," he says. "Even with other very successful social media sites, no one is better at conversation than Twitter."

__

AP Retail Writer Mae Anderson contributed to this story.

Associated Press

Source: http://hosted2.ap.org/APDEFAULT/f70471f764144b2fab526d39972d37b3/Article_2013-02-04-Super%20Bowl-Twitter/id-fd3eebe602d84b73ba3a6fbcdd9c227d

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Legal Theory Blog: Legal Theory Lexicon: Reflective Equilibrium

Introduction?

When we argue about the law we frequently deploy normative arguments. ?Sometimes our normative arguments appeal directly to our intuitions about particular cases; sometimes we rely on general theories (e.g., welfarism or Locke's social contract theory). ?This leads to the question: how can we justify our normative judgments and theories? ?One answer to this question is provided by the idea of "reflective equilibrium," strongly associated with?the work of John Rawls. ?We could take our intuitions about particular cases and test them against our moral general beliefs, e.g., moral principles or theories--and vice versa. ?Through a process of revision and reflection, we could aim for a consistent set of beliefs--where our judgments about particular cases were consistent with a coherent set of general principles. ?We can call this point of repose, "reflective equilibrium."

This entry is in the?Legal Theory Lexicon?provides a short introduction to the idea of reflective equilibrium for law students (especially first-year students) with an interest in legal theory. ?Although the primary emphasis will be on the role of reflective equilibrium in normative legal theory, we will also investigate reflective equilibrium as a method for legal reasoning.

The Basic Idea?

Legal theory is full of normative judgments. ?We argue that a particular statute is just or that it produces morally good consequences. ?We believe that a particular court decision is wrong in the moral sense--that it violates someone's rights or that its on balance effect is harmful.

How can we justify our normative judgments? ?We might try the method of geometry--beginning with indubitable moral axioms and then reaching particular cases by chains of deductive argument, but this method will run into difficulties if someone challenges the self-evidence of our starting premises. ?The method of reflective equilibrium offers an alternative to the method of geometry. ?It begins with our current set of ?beliefs--our moral theories, the moral principles we accept, and our judgments about particular cases. ?We look for contradictions and inconsistencies and then revise. ?These revisions might operate at the level of particulars--we might change our mind about a particular case (real or hypothetical) because it seems inconsistent with a general principle. ?Or the revisions might go the other way. ?We might discover that a moral theory or principle that seemed correct is inconsistent with firmly held beliefs about particular cases. ?By working back and forth, between and among our beliefs at various levels of generality and particularity, we might eventually reach a state in which all or almost all of our moral beliefs were consistent and mutually supporting--in other words, a state of reflective equilibrium.

Two Clarifications

Intuitions versus Considered Judgments

Sometimes the method of reflective equilibrium is said to rely on "intuitions" or our intuitive judgments about particular cases. ?This might be problematic, because our intuitive judgments might be defective--for example, they could be the product of prejudice, self-deception, or ideological indoctrination. ?Rawls introduces the notion of a "considered judgment" to reflect the idea that our prereflective intuitions can be examined, both for sources of error and for coherence with each other.

Levels of Generality

Another misunderstanding of reflective equilibrium is the notion that it must start with our judgments about particular cases, i.e., that it proceeds from the particular to the general. ?This might be the case, but it need not be. ?The method can operate on our judgments at any level of generality. ?For example, we could examine our judgments about moral principles and test their consistency with each other.

Wide and Narrow Reflective Equilibrium?

In more advanced discussions of reflective equilibrium, a distinction is sometimes made between "wide" and "narrow" reflective equilibrium. ?For the purposes of this post, we can characterize the difference this way: (1) narrow reflective equilibrium is seeks coherence and mutual support between and among: (a) our considered judgments about particular cases or types of cases, and (b) our set of moral principles; (2) wide reflective equilibrium adds a third dimension to the other two: (c) our background theories that are relevant to normative judgment. ?To reach wide reflective equilibrium, we will need to go beyond moral princples and judgments about particular cases and consider our views about general moral theories and perhaps related beliefs about human psychology, social theory, and other topics.

Wide reflective equilibrium requires that we take a "wider" range of judgments into account; narrow reflective equilibrium narrows our focus to judgments about particular cases and moral principles.

Reflective Equilibrium and Normative Legal Theory?

So how can the legal theorist use the idea of reflective equilibrium? ?The most obvious deployment of this idea is as a method of justification in normative legal theory. ?This might occur at the "macro" level--for example, as a method for justifying welfarism as a normative theory of law. ?Or it might occur with respect to domain specific normative legal theories, e.g., as a justification for a corrective-justice theory of tort law or a retributivist theory of criminal punishment.

Similarly, reflective equilibrium could play a critical role. ?One might argue against a normative legal theory on the ground that the theory is inconsistent with our considered judgments about particular cases or case types. ?Of course, this use of reflective equilibrium is tricky--since one can argue that the recalcitrant judgments should be modified in order to achieve reflective equilibrium.

Reflective Equilibrium and Legal Reasoning?

Sometimes the content of the law can be determined by roughly formalist methods. ?There is an authoritative legal text (a clause in the constitution, a statutory provisions, a rule or regulation); the text provides a more or less bright-line rule that guides behavior or resolves a dispute. ?But sometimes the content of the law is less clear. ?There is especially noticeable in common-law systems, in which the content of the rules is determined in a complex way by cases. ?What do we do when the results of the cases are not fully consistent or when different cases state the rules in varying and inconsistent language? ?One possible answer to this question is "use the method of reflective equilibrium!"

For example, we might take the decided cases as providing the equivalent of considered judgments about particular cases, and we could take rule statements as the equivalent of moral principles. ?Our quest would be for the set of rules that accounts for the greatest number of cases and possesses the maximal degree of internal coherence. ?If the cases are in tension with one another, there some cases will have to be counted as "mistakes"--the doctrine in reflective equilibrium would call for them to be overruled or confined to their facts.

Of course, something like this method is familiar to most law students, because courts do seem to seek something like "reflective equilibrium" at least some of the time. ?In legal theory, the method of reflective equilibrium resembles Dworkin's theory, "law as integrity" and the "reasoned elaboration of the law" associated with the "Legal Process" school.

Criticisms of the Method of Reflective Equilbrium

The method of reflective equilibrium is controversial. ?One might argue that the method relies on our "intuitions" about particular cases and that these intuitions are unreliable. ?Or one might argue that reflective equilibrium can always be satisfied by moral principles with multitudinous exceptions for recalcitrant judgments about particular cases. ?And these simplistic objections are just the beginning.

Conclusion

Reflective equilibrium is one of the most important tools in the legal theorists toolkit. ?And even if you don't embrace this method yourself, you are sure to run into others who rely on it.?

Related Lexicon Entries

Bibliography?

  • John Rawls,?A Theory of Justice: Original Edition?(Harvard University Press 1971) &?A Theory of Justice Revised Edition edition.
  • John Rawls,?Outline of a Decision Procedure for Ethics,??60?Philosophical Review 177?97 (1951), reprinted in John Rawls,?Collected Papers??(Samuel Freeman ed., Harvard University Press?1999).
  • Norman Daniels, Wide Reflective Equilibrium and Theory Acceptance in Ethics, 76 Journal of Philosophy 256?82 (1979), reprinted in Normal Daniels,?Justice and Justification: Reflective Equilibrium in Theory and Practice (Cambridge Studies in Philosophy and Public Policy)?21-46 (Cambridge University Press, 1996).
  • John Mikhail,?Rawls' Concept of Reflective Equilibrium and its Original Function in 'A Theory of Justice', 3 Washington University Jurisprudence Review 1 (2010).

Resources on the Internet

(This entry in the Legal Theory Lexicon was last revised on?February 3, 2013)

Source: http://lsolum.typepad.com/legaltheory/2013/02/legal-theory-lexicon-reflective-equilibrium.html

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Sunday, 3 February 2013

White House rebuffed Clinton-Petraeus plan to arm Syrian rebels: report

WASHINGTON (Reuters) - A plan developed last summer by then-Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and then-CIA Director David Petraeus to arm and train Syrian rebels was rebuffed by the White House, The New York Times reported on Saturday.

The United States has sent humanitarian aid to Syria but has declined requests for weapons by rebels fighting to overthrow the government of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad.

The White House rejected the Clinton-Petraeus proposal over concerns it could draw the United States into the Syrian conflict and the arms could fall into the wrong hands, the Times said, citing unnamed Obama administration officials.

The plan called for vetting rebels and arming a group of fighters with the assistance of some neighboring countries.

Some administration officials expected the issue to come up again after the November U.S. elections, but the plan apparently died after Petraeus resigned because of an extramarital affair and Clinton missed weeks of work with health issues, the Times said.

Clinton, who stepped down as secretary of state on Friday, declined in a recent interview with the Times to comment on her role in the debate over arming the rebels.

Outgoing Defense Secretary Leon Panetta was said by some officials to be sympathetic to the idea, the paper reported.

Petraeus and a spokesman for Panetta declined to comment, the Times said.

(Writing by Eric Beech; Editing by Peter Cooney)

Source: http://news.yahoo.com/white-house-rebuffed-clinton-petraeus-plan-arm-syrian-023937923.html

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Saturday, 2 February 2013

Bioelectric signals can be used to detect early cancer

Feb. 1, 2013 ? Biologists at Tufts University School of Arts and Sciences have discovered a bioelectric signal that can identify cells that are likely to develop into tumors. The researchers also found that they could lower the incidence of cancerous cells by manipulating the electrical charge across cells' membranes.

"The news here is that we've established a bioelectric basis for the early detection of cancer," says Brook Chernet, doctoral student and the first author of a newly published research paper co-authored with Michael Levin, Ph.D., professor of biology and director of the Center for Regenerative and Developmental Biology.

Levin notes, "We've shown that electric events tell the cells what to do. The voltage changes are not merely a sign of cancer. They control and direct whether the cancer occurs or not."

Bioelectric signals underlie an important set of control mechanisms that regulate how cells grow and multiply. Chernet and Levin investigated the bioelectric properties of cells that develop into tumors in Xenopus laevis frog embryos.

In previous research, Tufts scientists have shown how manipulating membrane voltage can influence or regulate cellular behavior such as cell proliferation, migration, and shape in vivo, and be used to induce the formation or regenerative repair of whole organs and appendages. In this study, the researchers hypothesized that cancer can occur when bioelectric signaling networks are perturbed and cells stop attending to the patterning cues that orchestrate their normal development.

Tumor Cells Exhibit a Bioelectric Signature

The researchers induced tumor growth in the frog embryos by injecting the samples with mRNAs (messenger RNA) encoding well-recognized human oncogenes Gli1, KrasG12D, and Xrel3. The embryos developed tumor-like growths that are associated with human cancers such as melanoma, leukemia, lung cancer, and rhabdomyosarcoma (a soft tissue cancer that most often affects children).

When the researchers analyzed the tumor cells using a membrane voltage-sensitive dye and fluorescence microscopy, they made an exciting discovery. "The tumor sites had unique depolarized membrane voltage relative to surrounding tissue," says Chernet. "They could be recognized by this distinctive bioelectric signal.

Changing Electrical Properties Lowers Incidence of Tumors

The Tufts biologists were also able to show that changing the bioelectric code to hyperpolarize tumor cells suppressed abnormal cell growth. "We hypothesized that the appearance of oncogene-induced tumors can be inhibited by alteration of membrane voltage," says Levin, "and we were right."

To counteract the tumor-inducing depolarization, they injected the cells with mRNA encoding carefully-chosen ion channels (proteins that control the passage of ions across cell membranes).

Using embryos injected with oncogenes such as Xrel3, the researchers introduced one of two ion channels (the glycine gated chloride channel GlyR-F99A or the potassium channel Kir4.1) known to hyperpolarize membrane voltage gradients in frog embryos. In both cases, the incidence of subsequent tumors was substantially lower than it was with embryos that received the oncogene but no hyperpolarizing channel treatment.

Experiments to determine the cellular mechanism that allows hyperpolarization to inhibit tumor formation showed that transport of butyrate, a known tumor suppressor, was responsible

The research was supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health (awards AR061988, AR055993) and the G. Harold and Leila Y. Mathers Charitable Foundation.

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The above story is reprinted from materials provided by Tufts University, via Newswise.

Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. For further information, please contact the source cited above.


Journal Reference:

  1. Chernet, B. T. and Levin, M. Transmembrane voltage potential is an essential cellular parameter for the detection and control of tumor development in a Xenopus model. Disease Models & Mechanisms, 8 February 2013 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.010835

Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

Disclaimer: This article is not intended to provide medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. Views expressed here do not necessarily reflect those of ScienceDaily or its staff.

Source: http://feeds.sciencedaily.com/~r/sciencedaily/matter_energy/biochemistry/~3/OUvNh7wQr4Y/130201090812.htm

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Friday, 1 February 2013

Clinton's Exit: Either Epilogue or Prelude (WSJ)

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Gene finding may lead to treatments effective against all MRSA strains

Jan. 31, 2013 ? In the last decade, a new strain of MRSA has emerged that can spread beyond hospital walls, putting everyone at risk of contracting the dangerous bacterial infection. This particular strain of MRSA -- known as USA300 -- contains a chunk of genes not shared by any other strains, though it is unclear how this unique genetic material enables the bacteria to survive and persist in the community.

Now, research from the University of North Carolina School of Medicine has pinpointed a gene that causes the infection to linger on the skin longer than other strains, allowing it to be passed more readily from one person to the next.

The gene makes this strain of MRSA resistant to specific compounds on the skin called polyamines that are toxic to other forms of the bacteria. In uncovering this property, researchers have identified a novel target for developing new treatments against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, particularly the USA300 strain that accounts for the vast majority of MRSA skin and soft tissue infections seen in emergency rooms.

"The problem is by the time you figure out how one strain comes into dominance, it often fades away and a new strain comes in. But because these compounds occur naturally and are so toxic, we still think they can lead to treatments that are effective against all MRSA. We will just have to put in a little extra work to block the gene and make this particular strain of MRSA susceptible to polyamines," said senior study author Anthony Richardson, PhD, assistant professor of microbiology and immunology at the UNC School of Medicine.

The UNC study, published Jan. 16, 2013, in the journal Cell Host & Microbe, follows an attribute of MRSA previously unexplored by other scientists -- its sensitivity to the naturally occurring compounds called polyamines.

Polyamines are critical to wound repair because they are anti-inflammatory and promote tissue regeneration. Scientists first observed that MRSA infections were killed by polyamines in the 1950s, but no one followed up until recently, when Richardson decided to twist this scientific observation into a treatment option.

He and his colleagues tested hundreds of MRSA strains and found that all of them except one -- USA300 -- were sensitive to polyamines. When they looked to see what was different about this particular strain, they found that it contained a chunk of 34 genes, called the arginine catabolic mobile element (ACME), that none of the other strains possessed.

Then the researchers mutated each of these genes, one by one, until they created a strain that could be killed off by the polyamines. To confirm that they had the right gene, the researchers added a normal, non-mutated version of the gene -- named SpeG -- to other strains of MRSA and showed that it could make them resistant to these compounds.

Finally, Richardson wanted to know if the gene exerts the same effects in the context of a real infection. Using mouse models of MRSA infection, he and his colleagues showed that the presence of the SpeG gene helped the potent USA300 strain to stay on the skin for anywhere from a day to a week, giving the infection time to spread to the next host.

"Previously, the field tried to understand MRSA by focusing on attributes that we already knew were important, such as the amount of toxins or virulence factors a given strain makes. Those elements may explain why the disease is so bad when you get it, but they don't explain how a particular strain takes over. Our work uncovers the molecular explanation for one strain's rapid and efficient spread to people outside of a crowded hospital setting," said Richardson.

The research was funded by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. Study co-authors from UNC include Lance R. Thurlow, PhD; Gauri S. Joshi, PhD; Justin R. Clark; Jeffrey S. Spontak; Crystal J. Neeley; and Robert Maile, PhD.

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Story Source:

The above story is reprinted from materials provided by University of North Carolina School of Medicine.

Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. For further information, please contact the source cited above.


Journal Reference:

  1. Lance?R. Thurlow, Gauri?S. Joshi, Justin?R. Clark, Jeffrey?S. Spontak, Crystal?J. Neely, Robert Maile, Anthony?R. Richardson. Functional Modularity of the Arginine Catabolic Mobile Element Contributes to the Success of USA300 Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Cell Host & Microbe, 2013; 13 (1): 100 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2012.11.012

Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

Disclaimer: This article is not intended to provide medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. Views expressed here do not necessarily reflect those of ScienceDaily or its staff.

Source: http://feeds.sciencedaily.com/~r/sciencedaily/health_medicine/genes/~3/Kl7bU7lGzLw/130131120632.htm

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